Is it Possible that DNA Genetic Material itself to fool the Definite Determination? Part 2

Real Fathers may escape responsibility of fathering; Lawyers shall stand on their toes on floor to question the protocols used by laboratories, to determine a real father.  

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the cell’s genetic material, contained in chromosomes within the cell nucleus and mitochondria. Except for certain cells for example, sperm and egg cells and red blood cells), the cell nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. A chromosome contains many genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that provides the code to construct a protein. The DNA molecule is a long, coiled double helix that resembles a spiral staircase. In it, two strands, composed of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules, are connected by pairs of four molecules called bases, which form the steps of the staircase. In the steps, adenine is paired with thymine and guanine is paired with cytosine. Each pair of bases is held together by a hydrogen bond. A gene consists of a sequence of bases. Sequences of three bases code for an amino acid (amino acids are the building blocks of proteins) or other information.

From the above drawn picture you can see the one and only Nucleus situated in the center of the tiny cell(10 - 30 µm are Most Eukaryotic animal cells of today and one µm micro meter is equal to 1 /1000 of a millimeter). Modern Molecular Biology  laboratories are (should be) competently resourced to handle those tiny cell and extract the exact nuclear DNA, targeting the centrally located Nucleus, without the contamination of extra-nucleus substance, scientifically known as cytoplasm  of a cell particularly the numerous number of Mitochondria; usually samples  collected are of mouth swabs, blood of known persons or  to be compared with that of under investigation sample. Both type samples will contain numerous cells intact. Anyhow  DNA are subjected for limited fragmenting and an efficient technician will realize whether he/she had typed  of different source DNA, because of the hyper activity of a Nuclear DNA instead of law profile activity of other DNA.  To understand this part we must go into details of DNA molecular structure and know what is meant by a term “SEQUENCE” in relation to DNA.

·         A gene is a segment of DNA containing the code used to synthesize a protein.

·         A chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes.

·         Every human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

·         A trait is any gene-determined characteristic and is often determined by more than one gene.

·         Some traits are caused by abnormal genes that are inherited or that are the result of a new mutation.

Proteins are probably the most important class of material in the body. Proteins are not just building blocks for muscles, connective tissues, skin, and other structures. They also are needed to make enzymes. Enzymes are complex proteins that control and carry out nearly all chemical processes and reactions within the body. The body produces thousands of different enzymes. Thus, the entire structure and function of the body is governed by the types and amounts of proteins the body synthesizes. Protein synthesis is controlled by genes, which are contained on chromosomes.

The genotype is a person’s unique combination of genes or genetic makeup. Thus, the genotype is a complete set of instructions on how that person’s body synthesizes proteins and thus how that body is supposed to be built and function.

The phenotype is the actual structure and function of a person’s body. The phenotype typically differs somewhat from the genotype because not all the instructions in the genotype may be carried out (or expressed). Whether and how a gene is expressed is determined not only by the genotype but also by the environment (including illnesses and diet) and other factors, some of which are unknown.

The karyotype is the full set of chromosomes in a person’s cells.

Genes - DNA

Genes consist of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the code, or blueprint, used to synthesize a protein. Genes vary in size, depending on the sizes of the proteins for which they code. Each DNA molecule is a long double helix that resembles a spiral staircase containing millions of steps. We all know that 3.3 billion pairs of nucleotides base (pH more than 7) represent around 20,000 genes; thus it is obvious more than one such base pair code for a particular gene. But the 3.3 billion steps of the staircase consist of pairs of only four different types of molecules bases of nucleotides, namely Adenine, Thymine Cytosine and Guanine, and in each step, in any DNA always the base Adenine (A) pairs only with the base Thymine (T), or the base Guanine (G) can pair only with the base cytosine (C).

Coding

Information is coded within DNA by the sequence in which the bases (A, T, G, and C) are arranged. The code is written in triplets. That is, the bases are arranged in groups of three. Particular sequences of three bases in DNA code for specific instructions, such as the addition of one amino acid to a chain. For example, GCT (Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine) codes for the addition of the amino acid alanine, and GTT (guanine, thymine, and thymine) codes for the addition of the amino acid Valine. Thus, the sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the order of triplet base pairs in the gene for that protein on the DNA molecule. The process of turning coded genetic information into a protein involves transcription and translation. The order of Triplet Base pairs in the Gene or DNA generally known as sequence. 

Above of all Nuclear DNA consists of numerous idling Nucleotide bases in pairs in its stairs and are known as non-coding sequences of Triplet Codons and technically called as Introns of DNA and these useless non-coding sequences  are the one used for forensic investigations and represents a staggering 93%  of a single DNA molecule. Theses non-coding sequences  are totally absent in Mitochondrial DNA