Constitutional Amendments

Attractiveness of A Government Depends on ensuring of Independent and Unbiased Judicial System rather than on an Executive Power. (Revised) 

Good Governance shall be trustful and be attractive to civilians leading to Stability– Executive Power accumulated within  individuals of any office provoke the individual to overrule the laid principles, inducts  mistrust locally as well as Internationally that leads to disastrous consequences

A permanent, broad based, powerful Independent Judicature Commission (IJC) shall be constituted consuming the Attorney General’s Office (DAG), Department of Excise (DoE), Judicial Service Commission (JSC), Bribery Commission(BC) and the Police Commission(PC); thus the commission shall comprise altogether 10 members with the appointment of  04 Supreme Court Judges or equivalent judiciary (SCC), along with Attorney General, respective heads of the units consumed, and the Inspector General of Police  as members, with equal executive powers towards the public responsibility of their respective units. Hence the entire Police Department particularly all the probing units, (Anti-Doping & Prevention of Drug Trafficking, Anti Financial Fraud and Corruption, FCID, TID etc.) shall come under the purview of this commission.

All 4 SCC members of the IJC shall be appointed by the Constitutional Council of the Parliament, comprising of all ethnicity of Parliamentarians, drawn from MPs of all political party represented in the Parliament. There should be a provision to disqualify as a political party that fails to nominate a MP to the Constitutional Council within stipulated time not more than 10 days. The five member Supreme Council of the IJC, will in turn recommend names to be appointed as Attorney General, Chairman, Director General and members for the other component independent units of IJC to the Constitutional Council of the Parliament. 

Attorney General though being Secretary of the IJC, will retain his powers, as the head of the Department of Attorney General, though consumed by IJC, would be the only person empowered to communicate outside the commission. He also would be empowered to appoint a secretary to receive public complaints on behalf of IJC and forward them to the high profile SCC members of the commission who are free of heading the individual units of the IJC, such as DoE, JSC, BC, and PC. All heads of the respective units will be inter connected within themselves as well as to the Supreme Council component (SCC) through an IT networking communication.

Main objectives of this set up is to completely free the entire judiciary system, from any form of political manipulation during appointment stages and in the day to day affairs in implementation of law equally to all irrespective of their status, politically or of administratively.

During an Election involving Election Commission

One of the important function of the IJC to spontaneously syndicates with Election Commissioner, as soon as an election proclamation is made by the Election Commissioner; IJC and EC will make a proclamation to this effect as well as to effect the transitory takeover of Telecommunication Regulatory Commission and all the Print and Electronic Media owned and partnered by the Government to ensure a Free and Fair information dissemination towards the voter. IJC shall monitor the private media as well to the same effect and any institution breaching the code of conduct for free and fair election during an election shall also  inducted into the transitory takeover, until the proclamation of end of election. This ensures all existing election laws are prudently implemented with absolute authority and impartiality at all the elections. There will be fixed dates for each election unless otherwise Speaker of the Parliament or Head of State (can only) proclaim (impending) cessation of a term. During an election, Instantaneous Indictment and Jurisdiction leading even to disqualification of candidates for electioneering misuse of State Office, converting State Property and Public Trust Funds into bribe or any other move with intentions of buying the votes, and those who involve in intimidation violence and pollution; hence equipped with enough manpower for the entire country including the small islands as well as with ultramodern technology as well.

All component units of IJC will keep their original integrity intact, and this setup ensures the respective heads appointed by the Constitutional Council of the Parliament and independently achieve their respective objective without being part of any Political anarchy, political manipulations and individual political pressurization apart from inducting the all officials to execute their duties intelligently free of fear.

The Provincial Police as well will come under the purview of IJC.

A supreme factor we have to remember is that the whole Judiciary System is for the people irrespective of ethnicity. The security forces’ main objective should be ensuring each and every citizen of this land living peacefully and dignity with self -respect. Grabbing the lands owned by the poor citizen, nothing other than the land on the pretext of maintenance of the security forces is a crime against humanity and mankind. Such acts will not sow the seeds of reconciliation in those minds of population but permanent hate to the majority community.

In addition ensuring, appropriate fundamental procedures are practiced in local and foreign collaborated deals and projects, ensuring media freedom and transparency in all issues as well will come under the purview of IJC. Tracking down of accumulation of wealth in excess of income and Tax evaders to enforce the law are part of its responsibility.

All the Sports Bodies of governing each sports would submit a monthly report on all of their financial transactions to IJC, and IJC will also ensure these Sports Bodies are democratically elected as per International Standards free of ministerial or political interference through the Dept. of Sports Administration.

Proposed IJC and its functioning also shall prevent State Leaders blatantly believing that being elected to a public office is a license to plunder the public property of the nation and for the other criminal activities and go unscathed under the disguise of political revenge claim alternatively or under the disguise of “Patriotic” who, eradicated  terrorism. At least to exonerate the patriotic from all allegations, there should be an absolutely independent powerful integrated state mechanism. 

The descriptions "Disappearances", "missing persons"  cannot be a part of permanent vocabulary of a respectful state's administrative system, and be accounted of as well. 

The IJC shall also be part of National Security Council through its supreme component SCC and its Secretary the Attorney General.  Economic vandalism through fraud, corruption and bribery by elected members as well as by the state officials is a serious threat to the National security and economic stability.

Is it Possible that DNA Genetic Material itself to fool the Definite Determination?  Part VIII

Final Episode 

Real Fathers may escape responsibility of fathering; Lawyers shall stand on their toes on floor to question the protocols used by laboratories, to determine a real father. 

Whatever the forensic DNA test, it should stand as a supporting evidence only, and cannot be depended upon as sole evidence to conclude a case; conventional system of penal code procedure shall sum up the results of the entire evidence along with the results of DNA test, whether it is negative or positive, however modern technique science could be. 

Further enhancing the knowledge of genetics will further the strengthen us to understand the pros and cons of the applications of DNA studies for any related fields.

Pairing

All animals and plants consists of chromosomes in pairs within their each cell nucleus, and are known to be diploid chromosomes or diploid chromosomal pattern. But the sperm cell and ova of all animals would only contain the half the number of chromosomes in order to ensure only the component quota within the Zygote, the first cell of next generation – the fertilized ova, that goes on a division spree to attain the embryonic status.

Common Name	Genus and Species All Consisting of 3.3 billion Base  Pairs	Diploid Chromosome
Buffalo	Bubalus bubalis Riverine	23+1 = 48
	Bubalus bubalis Swamp	24+1 = 50
Camel	Camelus dromedaroius	33+3+1 = 74
Cat	Felis catus  - all felines	18+1 = 38
Cattle	Bos taurus, B. indicus	29+1 = 60
Dog	Canis familiaris – most of the canines	38+1 = 78
Donkey	Equis asinus	30+1 = 62
Goat	Capra hircus	29+1 = 60
Horse	Equis caballus	31+1 = 64
Human	Homo sapiens	22+1 = 46
Pig	Sus scrofa	18+1 = 38
Rabbit	Oryctolagus cuniculus	21+1 = 44
Sheep	Ovis aries	26+1 = 54

Though it is said each and every cell of the animals carry diploid set chromosomes, as in the above list, red blood cells (RBC) of all mammals including human void of nucleus and do not carry any chromosomes. Camals & Camelidae family mammals RBC do carry nucleus as well as chromosomes is an exception. Except camels all listed above consists of one pair as sex chromosomes X Y and the rest are known as autosomal chromosomes. Though camels are also have one pair little sized sex chromosomes but adjoined with another 3 pairs of autosomal chromosomes.

Human Sex Determination

Paired non-sex chromosomes 22 are, for practical purposes, identical in size, shape, and position and number of genes. Because each member of a pair of non-sex chromosomes contains one of each corresponding gene, there is in a sense a backup for the genes on those chromosomes. These are known as autosomal  chromosomes. 

The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes (X and Y).

A chromosome is made of a very long strand of DNA and contains many genes (hundreds to thousands).

The pair of sex chromosomes determines whether a fetus becomes male or female. Males have one X and one Y chromosome, called Heterogamete XY. A male’s X comes from his mother and the Y comes from his father.

Homogamete XX of Females would have one X from mother and another X chromosome from father.

In all the mammals, the female is XX and the male is XY.

Primary sex determination is the determination of the gonads the precursor cells of Testicles or Ovaries.

In mammals, primary sex determination is strictly chromosomal and is not usually influenced by the environment.

Every individual must have at least one X chromosome.

Since the female is XX, each of her eggs has a single X chromosome.

The male, being XY, can generate two types of sperm: half bear the X chromosome, half the Y. If the egg receives another X chromosome from the sperm, the resulting individual is XX, forms ovaries, and is female.

If the egg receives a Y chromosome from the sperm, the individual is XY, forms testes, and is male. The Y chromosome carries a gene that encodes a testis-determining factor. This factor organizes the gonad into a testis rather than an ovary.

The mammalian Y chromosome is a crucial factor for determining sex in mammals. A person with five X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (XXXXXY) would be male. Furthermore, an individual with only a single X chromosome and no second X or Y (i.e., XO) develops as a female and begins making ovaries, although the ovarian follicles cannot be maintained. For a complete ovary, a second X chromosome is needed.

In mammalian primary sex determination, there is no “default state” (as of, there is no definite either male or female). The formation of ovaries and testes are both active, gene-directed processes. Moreover, as we shall see, both diverge from a common precursor, the bi-potential gonad.

The gonads cells function uniquely from all the other embryonic cells. All other organ rudiments can normally develop into only one type of organ. A lung rudiment can become only a lung, and a liver rudiment can develop only into a liver.

The gonadal rudiment, however, has two normal options. When it differentiates, it can develop into either an ovary or a testis. The path of differentiation taken by this rudiment determines the future sexual development of the organism. But, before this decision is made, the mammalian gonad first develops through a bipotential (probable for both) stage, an indifferent stage, during which time it has neither female nor male characteristics.

In humans, the gonadal rudiments appear in the intermediate mesoderm during the 4^th week and remain sexually indifferent until 7^th week. From 8^th weekly begin to differentiate into female if the carried chromosome pair is XX or into a male if the carried one are XY

Secondary sex determination affects the bodily phenotype (appearance) outside the gonads. A male mammal has a penis, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland. A female mammal has a vagina, cervix, uterus, oviducts, and mammary glands. In many species, each sex has a sex-specific size, vocal cartilage, and musculature. These secondary sex characteristics are usually determined by hormones secreted from the gonads. However, in the absence of gonads, the female phenotype is generated. When Jost (1953) removed fetal rabbit gonads before they had differentiated, the resulting rabbits had a female phenotype, regardless of whether they were XX or XY. They each had oviducts, a uterus, and a vagina, and each lacked a penis and male accessory structures.

The general scheme of mammalian sex determination is that, if the Y chromosome is absent, the gonadal primordia develop into ovaries. The ovaries produce estrogen, a hormone that enables the development of the Müllerian duct into the uterus, oviducts, and upper end of the vagina.

If the Y chromosome is present, testes form and secrete two major hormones. The first hormone—anti-Müllerian duct hormone (AMH; also referred to as Müllerian-inhibiting substance, MIS)—destroys the Müllerian duct. The second hormone—testosterone—masculinizes the fetus, stimulating the formation of the penis, scrotum, and other portions of the male anatomy, as well as inhibiting the development of the breast primordia. Thus, the body has the female phenotype unless it is changed by the two hormones secreted by the fetal testes.

I have refrained from going into the details of DNA based explanation for sex determination, and have used very conservative, still scientific chromosome based explanation, which is very fitting and enough to understand the basics of sex determination.

DNA Replication is an important process in life and is almost similar to the DNA transcription for the Gene Expressing.  Cells reproduce by splitting in two. Because each new cell requires a complete set of DNA molecules, the DNA molecules in the original cell must reproduce (replicate) themselves during cell division. Replication happens in a manner similar to transcription, except that the entire double-strand DNA molecule unwinds and splits in two. After splitting, bases on each strand bind to complementary bases (A with T, and G with C) floating nearby. When this process is complete, two identical double-strand DNA molecules exist.

Mutation

To prevent mistakes during replication, cells have a “proofreading” function to help ensure that bases are paired properly. There are also chemical mechanisms to repair DNA that was not copied properly. However, because of the billions of base pairs involved in and the complexity of the protein synthesis process, mistakes can happen. Such mistakes can occur for numerous reasons including exposure to radiation, drugs, or viruses or drastic environment or for no apparent reason. Minor variations in DNA are very common and occur in most people. Most variations do not affect subsequent copies of the gene. Mistakes that are duplicated in subsequent copies are called mutations. Mutations that affect the reproductive cells may be passed on to offspring. Mutations that do not affect reproductive cells affect the descendants of the mutated cell (for example, becoming a cancer) but are not passed on to their offspring. Mutations may be unique to an individual or family, and most mutations are rare. Mutations that become so common that they affect more than 1% of a population are called polymorphisms (for example, the human blood types A, B, AB, and O). Most polymorphisms have no effect on the phenotype (appearance).  

Mutations may involve small or large segments of DNA. Depending on its size and location, the mutation may have no apparent effect or it may alter the amino acid sequence in a protein or decrease the amount of protein produced. If the protein has a different amino acid sequence, it may function differently or not at all. An absent or nonfunctioning protein is often harmful or fatal.

Natural selection refers to the concept that mutations that impair survival in a given environment are less likely to be passed on to offspring (and thus become less common in the population), whereas mutations that improve survival progressively become more common. Thus, beneficial mutations, although initially rare, eventually become common. The slow changes that occur over time caused by mutations and natural selection in an interbreeding population collectively are called evolution. The environment we live will play a role in the distant long run, what organ to be improved and what to be lost for best survival chances.

Abnormalities-: We know that females have two X chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. In certain ways, sex chromosomes function differently than non-sex chromosomes. The smaller Y chromosome carries the genes that determine male sex as well as a few other genes. The X chromosome contains many more genes than the Y chromosome, many of which have functions besides determining sex and have no counterpart on the Y chromosome. In males, because there is no second X chromosome, these extra genes on the X chromosome are not paired and virtually all of them are expressed. Genes on the X chromosome are referred to as sex-linked, or X-linked, genes. Normally, in the non-sex chromosomes, the genes on both of the pairs of chromosomes are capable of being fully expressed. However, in females, most of the genes on one of the two X chromosomes are turned off through a process called X inactivation (except in the eggs in the ovaries). X inactivation occurs early in the life of the fetus. In some cells, the X from the father becomes inactive, and in other cells, the X from the mother becomes inactive. Thus, one cell may have a gene from the person’s mother and another cell has the gene from the person’s father. Because of X inactivation, the absence of one X chromosome usually results in relatively minor abnormalities. Thus, missing an X chromosome is far less harmful than missing a non-sex chromosome. If a female has a disorder in which she has more than two X chromosomes, the extra chromosomes tend to be inactive. Thus, having one or more extra X chromosomes causes far fewer developmental abnormalities than having one or more extra non-sex chromosomes. For example, women with three X chromosomes (triple) XXX syndrome are often physically and mentally normal. Most but in contrast males who have more than one Y chromosome XYY are not physically and mentally normal.

Science will not bury the truth, unless it is buried voluntarily!    

In birds, along with some reptiles, fishes and in some invertebrates sex determination chromosomes are termed Z and W system, in which homo-gametes is male ZZ and female is hetero-gametes as such completely reversed to that of mammals’ XY system. 

                                                                                                                                  Concluded.

Is it Possible that DNA Genetic Material itself to fool the Definite Determination? Part VII

Real Fathers may escape responsibility of fathering; Lawyers shall stand on their toes on floor to question the protocols used by laboratories, to determine a real father. 

First of all I render my apologies, for some typing mistakes in the Part VI, which rendered unable to understand, what I have described in the beginning of the procedure for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) fortunately though the typing mistakes has not alter the meaning or the essence of techniques explained; now it has been corrected and here uploaded a you-tube link for further acquainting to PCR.  

https://youtu.be/iQsu3Kz9NYo

In the Part V, I was discussing the earliest method of DNA typing, the RFLP process and the main reasons for it had been supplanted by PCR and the emergence of a technique, which was termed as Genetic Finger Printing, rather inadvertently by Prof. Alec Jeffrey Sir, who introduced the using of Introns of DNA and as well adding a barcode technique for interpreting of DNA analysis. Within months of Prof. Alec Jeffreys’ scientific papers in 1985, it was brought to the floor of the court through a lawyer to solve a longstanding immigration dispute of a Ghanaian family of UK citizens. The family's youngest son had recently returned from a trip to Ghana, but the Home Office detained him, alleging that he held a forged passport, and claimed that the boy is not born to that parents. Jeffreys compared the DNA from the boy, the woman who claimed to be his mother, and her other children through a multi-locus restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of variable loci and it proved that the boy was the woman’s  son and that all of her children shared the same father and the immigration was allowed within UK. Jeffreys went on to settle an unresolved rape murder case within Leicester Canterbury among the two suspects one was convicted on both accounts, other one was exonerated absolutely. Elsewhere in Italy another rape and murder which had not been resolved for a grueling 14 years, brought to book by RFLP –genetic fingerprinting, through a dried up chewing-gum sample from the site of crime after 14 long years after the crime. In USA one who was convicted for Rape and sentenced 245 years RI, was exonerated from all charges after spending his 7 years in jail and the list goes on and on. Still European Law emphasizes that it is mandatory to obtain a court order before undertaking or storing genetic finger printing of an individual by any method, quite an absurd mandate since introns can never reveal anybody’s personal characterizations.       

Though RFLP method is laborious, time consuming and require larger DNA, and hence exposed to human errors, it does not require a known DNA sequence as in the case of PCR, which requires to be added with Primers  containing sequences complementary to the target region along with a DNA polymerase, in order to elongate the chain, and thus RFLP only sparingly used only when reference sample of unknown originates.

The Story of Emergence Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Method.

 The RFLP technique became the first scientifically accepted forensic DNA analysis method, but it had a few drawbacks: the single locus probe strategy still required relatively large amounts of DNA, and that DNA had to be recovered from a crime scene in a high quality form. DNA degrades when exposed to the environment, breaking into fragments that may be too small for RFLP analysis.

Researchers overcame these limitations in two stages. In the first, scientists applied the new polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to forensic analysis since the PCR method can duplicate, or amplify, a billion copies of a target nucleotide sequence, even a target sequence buried in a mixture of millions of other sequences and PCR duplication can be performed with a Nano-gram of DNA in contrast to 10Micrograms- for RFLP a 10 x 10³ fold reduction of required quantity.

But still there was a hitch. PCR could duplicate only DNA segments much shorter than numerous mini-satellite targets. Therefore incorporation of PCR amplification into forensic DNA analysis required a switch to a smaller targets that offered the same type of tandem repeat variation. Here where the stage two comes in: the use of microsatellites. While minisatellites have sequences of six to 100 nucleotides bp, that repeat two to several hundred times, microsatellites have repeat unit lengths that typically peak at seven nucleotides, repeated five to 100 times. (The entire probable target intronic codon sequences are referred to as minisatellites and microsatellites) 

In 1991, Baylor College of Medicine's Thomas Caskey suggested using a type of microsatellite called short tandem repeats (STRs).

We all know that the human genome is full of repeated DNA sequences. These repeated sequences come in various sizes. DNA regions with short repeat units of introns (usually 2-6 bp in length) are called Short Tandem Repeats (STR). STRs are found surrounding the chromosomal centromere (the structural center of the chromosomes)STRs, are repeated in tandem fashion around five to a few dozen times and are classified according to the length of the core repeat units, the number of adjoining repeat units, and/or the overall length of the repeat region. Each repetition number is called an allele. Thus, a 10-fold repetition of the core unit at locus X is called ‘allele 10 of locus X’. The combination of STR alleles at several loci is unique for an individual, even if some or many alleles can be shared with others.

Peter Gill, then a researcher at Britain Forensic Science Service, devised the PCR-STR method, which enabled the simultaneous analysis of multiple STRs, a tactic called multiplexing. With this technique at hand, investigators could analyze DNA recovered from minute and even partially degraded samples. Forensic DNA analysis no longer depended upon the availability of tissues and fluids, such as blood and semen. Now, DNA analysis could be performed with PCR-amplified biological traces acquired from dental molds, cigarette butts, eating utensils, chewing gum, postage stamps, ski masks, licked envelopes, toothbrushes, razor shavings, band aids, and real palm fingerprints.

If full proof of a match between the genetic fingerprint from a biological sample from a crime scene and the DNA profile of an offender is needed, sometimes the combination of STR alleles from up to 12–15 loci might be needed  ​(Figure3) This, however, will lead to the perfectly safe statement that ‘no other person on this continent/on earth shares the same allele composition’.

Fig. 3. A multiplex PCR of 16 short tandem repeat loci. The PCR products overlap and are therefore labelled in different fluorescent colours.

VNTR- Variable Number of Tandem Repeat

Flanking the Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) in the chromosome are VNTR Variable Number of Tandem Repeats, as the name implies sequences of tandem repeat varies in individuals as well as within tissues of individuals. It can be added or removed by replication or recombination errors giving rise to varying number alleles of repeats. 

VNTR blocks can be extracted with restriction enzymes and analyzed by RFLP, or amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique and their size determined by gel electrophoresis.

VNTRs were an important source of RFLP genetic markers used in linkage analysis (mapping) of diploid genomes. Now that many genomes have been sequenced, VNTRs have become essential to forensic crime investigations, via DNA fingerprinting and the CODIS* database.

*CODIS = Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a FBI's program of support for criminal justice DNA databases as well as the software used to run these databases, it is just an computing technology extension for DNA analysis applied only in USA and Canada.

When removed from surrounding DNA by the PCR or RFLP methods, and their size determined by gel electrophoresis or Southern blotting, they produce a pattern of bands unique to each individual. When tested with a group of independent VNTR markers, the likelihood of two unrelated individuals' having the same allelic pattern is extremely low. VNTR analysis is also being used to study genetic diversity and breeding patterns in populations of wild or domesticated animals. As such, VNTRs can be used to distinguish strains of bacterial pathogens. In this microbial forensics context, such assays are usually called Multiple Loci VNTR Analysis or MLVA.

In analyzing VNTR data, two basic genetic principles can be used:

Identity Matching- both VNTR alleles from a specific location must match. If two samples are from the same individual, they must show the same allele pattern.

Inheritance Matching- the VNTR alleles must follow the rules of inheritance. In matching an individual with his parents or children, a person must have an allele that matches one from each parent. If the relationship is more distant, such as a grandparent or sibling, then matches must be consistent with the degree of relatedness.

Next Generation works on Exons
Before I wind up, it is quite appropriate to stress that DNA analysis, despite it is being expanded day by day through continuous research universally, basically there are only two analytical procedure for forensic studies, that are RFLP and PCR method; all the other procedures that explained are of just a difference in target sequence codons or markers of the DNA for above two procedures to obtain a results in bands, sometimes illuminated for clarity. Gene codons, noncoding introns, STR, and VNTR are all DNA markers for analysis through RFLP and STR. The researchers are very keen in bringing in another target or marker of DNA popularly known amongst Molecular Biologists, Geneticists and specially the Forensic Scientists as EXONS into that list.

What are EXONS? Exons are both the DNA sequence within a gene and to the corresponding sequence in RNA transcripts, that would be lost to the mature mRNA; that means gene codons just completed expressing (a message) along with corresponding trRNA and mRNA codons that lost the Introns through RNA splicing. If they progress to succeed targeting the sequences of Exons, they might even progress to detect what kind of proteins have been expressed by those genes since the crime, as well, leading into the behavioral pattern of suspects. Long way to go and there would be an ethical barrier as well!  

Coming up will be pairing, Sexing and Mutation for selection in the final episode